ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT - Unit 2

UNIT 2

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES AND ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

Industrial activities play an important role in the economic well-being of any country contributing to sustainable growth. However, industrial activities also have a significant impact on the environment. It leads to the emission of key atmospheric pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, dust and volatile organic compounds. In this unit, you will learn about the impact of industrial and business activities on the environment, such as industrial pollution and impact of industrial waste on the local environment. You will be familiarized with the role of competition and consumerism, and the issues of environment management for business. The unit will be discussing about natural resources and energy management and ways to conserve natural resources and energy. The unit will elaborate upon the necessity of optimally using the fossil fuels, and finally the unit will discuss the use of non-conventional energy resources.

2.2 IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL AND BUSINESS ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Any business effects the environment. It causes air, water and noise pollution. All these types of pollutions are discussed in detail in the following section.

2.2.1 Industrial Pollution

1. Air Pollution

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 defines 'air pollutants' and with reference to them defines air pollution. An 'air pollutant' means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment. Air pollution means the presence of any air pollutant in the atmosphere. In this connection, the definition of' emission' is also relevant. 'Emission' is any solid, liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or any other outlet. There are 'standards' and legislation that exist for emissions.

Approximately, 95 per cent of the earth's air is present the lower levels, specially in the troposphere. In the natural state, air contains 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent oxygen, 0.4 per cent carbon dioxide plus small amounts of other gases and water vapour. The remaining 0.5 per cent of the planet air occurs in the upper levels, the stratosphere together with gases like ozone.

Air pollutants can be primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (all formed from the combustion of fossil fuels), CFC and particulate matter. Secondary pollutants are acid rain and ozone. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water in the atmosphere and react with sunlight forming acid droplets. These acid droplets constitute acid rain.

(i) Sources of air pollution

The sources of air pollution are both natural and man-made (anthropogenic). They

are as follows:

(a) Natural sources: The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays, biological decay, photochemical oxidation, extraterrestrial bodies, pollen grains of flowers, etc. Radioactive minerals present in the earth's crust are the sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.

(b) Man-made sources: Man-made sources include thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, burning of fossil fuel, agricultural activities, etc. Thermal power plants have become the major sources for generating electricity in India. The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO 2' Metallurgical plants also consume coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants,

smelters, textile mills, chemical industries, paper and pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.

Automobile exhaust is another major source of air pollution.

(c) Indoor air pollution: The most important indoor air pollutant is a gas named radon. This is responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. These could be emitted ftom building materials like bricks, concrete and tiles. Many houses in the underdeveloped countries including India use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene in their kitchens. Complete combustion of fuel produces carbon dioxide which may be toxic; however, incomplete

.            combustion produces the toxic gas, carbon monoxide.

I (ii) Effects of air pollution

1. Effects on human health: Years of exposure to air pollutants including cigarette smoke adversely affect the natural defenses of the body and can result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis, etc. Many other pollutants may have toxic metals that can cause mutations, reproductive problems or even cancer.

2. Effects on plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering the cells through the

         stomata. The damage results in the death of the plant.

3. Effects on aquatic life: Air pollutants mixing up with rain can cause high acidity in ftesh water lakes, which affects aquatic life, especially fish. Some of the fteshwater lakes have had the complete fish population wiped out due to a heavy dose of air pollutants.

4. Effects on materials: Due to their corrosiveness, particulates can cause damage

         to exposed surfaces.

         (ill) Control of air pollution

Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:

( a) Setting up of industries after proper environmental impact assessment studies.

(b) Using low sulphur coal in industries.

(c) Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help of bacteria).

(d) Removing NOx (nitrogen oxide) during the combustion process.

(e) Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic

precipitators, bag-house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers, etc.

(f) Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines, converters, by engine modification to have fuel effective (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions and slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce NOx

         emission (Honda Technology).

(g) Using mass transport system, bicycles, etc. (h) Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).

(i) Using non-conventional sources of energy. G) Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.

(k) Planting more trees.

(1) Through the Air Pollution Control Act.

2. Noise pollution

We hear various types of sounds everyday. Sound is a form of mechanical energy emitted from a vibrating source. A type of sound may be pleasant to someone and at the same time unpleasant to others. Unpleasant and unwanted sound is called noise.

The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) has recommended permissible noise levels for different locations.

(i) Effects of noise

(a) Interferes with man's communication: In a noisy area, communication is

       severely affected.

(b) Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends on the intensity and duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced with noise levels over 90 dB in the mid-high frequency, for more than a few minutes.

(c) Physiological and psychological changes: Continuous exposure to noise affects the functioning of various systems of the body. It may result in hypertension, insomnia (sleeplessness), gastro-intestinal and digestive disorders, etc.

(ii) Steps to control noise pollution

(a) Reduction in the sources of noise.

(b) Noise-making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing

media. The noise path will be interrupted and will not reach the workers.

(c) Proper oiling will reduce the noise from machinery.

(d) Use of sound absorbing silencers. Silencers can reduce noise by absorbing

sound. For this purpose, various types of fibrous materials can be used.

    (e) Planting more trees that have broad leaves.

(f) Law and legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at various social functions. Unnecessary blowing of horn should be restricted, especially in vehicle-congested areas.

3. Water pollution

Water pollution can be defined as an alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water, making it unsuitable for the designated use in its natural state.

(i) Sources of water pollution

Water is an essential commodity for survival. We need water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, irrigation and for all industrial operations. Water has the property

to dissolve many substances in it. Therefore, it can get polluted easily. Pollution of water can be caused by point sources or non-point sources. Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants, underground coal mines, offshore oil wells, etc.

(ii) Groundwater pollution and surface water pollution (a) Groundwater pollution

Groundwater forms about 6.2 per cent of the total water available on planet earth, and is about thirty times more than surface water, i.e., streams, lakes and estuaries. Septic

tanks, industry (textile, chemical, tanneries), deep-well injection, mining, etc., are mainly responsible for groundwater pollution which is irreversible. Groundwater pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate pose serious health hazards.

(b) Surface water pollution

The major sources of surface water pollution are as follows:

   (i) Sewage

   (ii) Industrial effluents

  (iii) Synthetic detergents

  (iv) Agrochemicals

  (v) Oil

  (vi) Waste heat

(vii) Effects of water pollution

The following are some of the important effects of various types of water pollutants:

   (i) Oxygen-demanding wastes

   (ii) Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (nutrients)

   (iii) Pathogens

   (iv) Toxic compounds

   (v) Waterborne diseases

   (vi) Reduction in dissolved oxygen in water resources

Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to have caused various health problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, etc., have therefore been banned. Recently, in Andhra Pradesh, people suffered from various abnormalities due to the consumption of endosulphan contaminated cashew nuts.

(iv) Control of water pollution

It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However, due to absence of any defined strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from non-point sources. The following points may help to reduce water pollution from non-point sources.

(a) Judicious use of agrochemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-off and leaching. Using agrochemicals on sloped lands

         should be avoided.

(b) Use of nitrogen-fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.

(c) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.

(d) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-offs to basin for settlement. The

nutrient-rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.

(e) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided.

(f) Plantation of trees would reduce pollution and will also prevent soil erosion. (g) Industrial affluents to be allowed only after treatment.

2.2.2 Impact of Industrial Waste on the Local Environment

Materials which are mainly generated through anthropogenic activities and are discarded as useless or unwanted are called wastes. The waste may be solid, liquid and gaseous wastes. On the basis of the source of generation, they are classified as domestic waste, commercial wastes, institutional waste, agricultural waste, biomedical waste and industrial waste. The waste generated from the industrial sectors are known

as industrial wastes. The industrial wastes are organic or inorganic in nature. Some of the wastes are biodegradable or non-biodegradable. The wastes are also hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste.

These wastes are generally discharged from chemical industries, refineries, I textile industries, drug industries, fertilize plants, etc. All the wastes that are generated from industries have a greater effect on all living organisms, and especially the victims are the organisms in the local environment.

Wastes polluting air

The major air pollutants are carbon oxides (CO and CO z), sulphur oxides (SO Z' SO 3)' nitrogen oxides (NO, NOz' NzO). Particulate matter are soot, smoke, very fine particles, (such as lead, manganese, asbestor, arsenic, copper, zinc, etc.), peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), ozone (°3)' etc.

The industrial wastes polluting the air mainly come ftom the burning of fossil fuels in industries. The industries that produce various products, such as textile industry which produces cotton dust, nitrogen oxides, cWorine, smoke, sulphur dioxide; fertilizer plants produce oxides of sulphur, particulate matter, ammonia nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon, etc. steel plants produce carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, fluorine, particulate matter, etc.

The following are the effects of the major air pollutants:

            1. Carbon monoxide combines with blood haemoglobin and forms stable

                   carboxyhaemoglobin, disturbing oxygen transportation and might cause

                   death.

                   2. Oxides of nitrogen causes respiratory irritation, impairment of lung

                   defence, bronchitis, loss of appetite, etc.

                   3. Sulphur dioxide causes suffocation, respiratory irritation, asthma and

                   chronic bronchitis.

4. Particulate matter causes respiratory diseases, neural disorder and depending on the nature of element it might lead to cancer. If lead is present in the particulate matter and inhaled it might lead to mental retardation in children.

5. Ground level °3 causes headache, suffocation and in external cases can

                   be fatal.

6. Peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN) are produced nearer to the industry producing NOz' volatile organic compound. This might be formed through some mechanism and might effect local people severely by causing eye irritation, sore throat, respiratory irritation, headache, etc.

7. When a huge amount of sulphur oxide particulate matter is formed then sulphurous smog might also be formed, which might lead to chronic bronchitis and acute respiratory problems.

Wastes polluting water

The major sources of water pollution is industrial discharges, especially from manufacturing plants. These industries discharge organics, such as toxic metals, pesticides, nitrate salts, etc. Groundwater pollution can occur when industrial waste is discharged into pits, ponds or lagoons, thereby enabling wastes to percolate to the water table. The oxygen demanding wastes are introduced from paper industry, textile industry, food processing plants, toxic metals, such as Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, etc., from the electroplating industry. The groundwater pollution stems from disposal of wastes on or into the ground. The wastes, mainly in the rainy season, percolates into the ground and contaminate it. The typical pollutant sources are industrial wastewater impoundments, sanitary landfills, storage piles which are improperly constructed. The pollutants in water are limitless, some of them can be biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) wastes, antimony, cadmium, chromium, lead, cobalt, mercury, etc. Generally, many industries, such as steel and paper industries are situated on the banks of rivers, as they require huge amounts of water in their operations. Such industries dump their wastes which contains acids, alkalis, dyes into the rivers. Many of these materials are poisonous for living organisms and causes serious water pollution problems.

Some of the effects of various pollutants are as follows:

1. Oxygen demanding wastes: With the increase of oxygen demanding wastes, the dissolved oxygen in water drops, threatening aquatic life. It loses its recreational quality and helps in the growth of pathogens making it completely unusable.

2. Nutrients: The industry, especially the fertilizer industry, discharges a lot of nitrogen oxides which goes to water bodies through acid rain, and if larger concentration accumulates and local people use this water, their children might be effected with blue baby syndrome.

3. Thermal pollution: Steel industry, nuclear reactors, electric power plants use huge amount of water for cooling processes. The water discharged is very hot and causes thermal pollution. The high temperature depletes oxygen, thereby affecting fish and aquatic organisms. The local people who depend on these water resources become affected. Again the cooling water produces wastewater with salts.

4. Heavy metals, Cd, Hg, Pb, As, etc.: Heavy metals have great effect on human health as they may lead to kindly damage, disorder of liver, brain, genetic modification, skin cancer, kidney etc.

Wastes polluting land

Industrial wastes polluting land are generally wastes such as office and cafeteria wastes, I packing wastes, tannery wastes, dying wastes, food processing wastes, plastic wastes, I metal scraps, pesticides, etc., from the respective industrial establishments. These . wastes represent a health hazard due to their content in toxic substances, such as heavy metals, lead and cadmium, pesticides, solvents and used oil. The pollutants I discharged into the soil can alter the chemical and biological properties of the soil.

                I The toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, etc., pose a detrimental health threat, as they get into the food chain. The coal-based thermal power plants generate fly ash which gets deposited in the soil and causes pollution by changing the characteristics of the soil. The fly ash so formed 'carve' the leaves of plants and when the fly ash is inhaled, it causes serious health problems. An ideal example is the Kolaghat thermal power plant in Midnapore, where people are suffering from serious health conditions. Discarded plastics also affect water resources in the local environment.

Wastes creating noise pollution

Noise is an unwanted sound energy and is considered as pollutant when it exceeds some limits. Noise pollution has been growing steadily mainly due to industrialization. Noise pollution has tremendous effect on the local environment. It disturbs and distracts. If the local public is exposed to it for a sufficient time, it causes physiological effects that may lead to deafness. Noise pollution may lead to cardiovascular problems like heart diseases and with blood pressure.

2.2.3 Role of Competition and Consumerism

Due to rapid industrialization, the comparative gap between the rich and the poor is widening. Those with jobs and those without have equally experienced the reality of the rat race of daily life. They are willing to spend it for their comforts and those who lack money are resorting to anti-social activities resulting in increase in crimes, especially financial crimes like roberies, embezzlement and misappropriations. It is the impact of the continuous increase in salaries and wages every year, that the habits of spending have undergone a change. In such a society, those who have jobs and a reasonable salary or wage, are now not worried about the money in their pockets. Such people are willing to buy articles beyond their buying capacity. There is an increasing tendency of resorting to avail loans from financial institutions, banks. The saving habits of the previous generations are getting converted into spending habits.

2.3 ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT FOR BUSINESS

What exactly are environmental issues and how do these specifically affect people? For business, environmental issues include deterioration of land quality, accumulation of waste, water pollution, air pollution, etc. There are ways to overcome these environmental issues and they are discussed as follows:

. Global warming: Increased emission of carbon dioxide and other hot gases into the environment is the perceived culprit in the climate change and consequent disasters. Climate change can not only result in such direct disasters as hurricanes and long winters, but also affect agriculture and food availability.

. Loss of biodiversity: It is biodiversity in the form of numerous organisms that makes life on this earth sustainable. Organisms make the soil fit for cultivation, destroy pests and maintain climate, among other things. Killing these organisms by destroying forests and other such practices can make life on the planet very different and difficult.

. Water and air pollution: Persistent organic pollutants and toxic materials, such as pesticides and industrial wastes can accumulate in living tissues disrupting endocrine systems, suppressing immunity functions and causing reproductive and developmental changes. Also, the pollutants can travel long distances crossing international borders through air, water and migratory species.

. Land degradation: Unsustainable felling of trees and exploitation of water

can lead to desertification of presently habitable regions while destruction of mangroves and other practices can lead to erosion of coastal areas.

. Chemical waste: In a chemical industry, the environmental issues are chemical spills. A spill can injure employees or make them sick. It can lead to fires and other property damage. It can become a source of bad press and jeopardize your relationship with the community. A chemical spill can easily find a waterway or groundwater, which can be disastrous for the environment in the long run. In order to avoid such accidents, it is necessary to be prepared for spills, and train the employees.

It is thus obvious that life on earth will be a very different proposal in the future if current human practices continue unchecked. The situation will be aggravated when the non-renewable energy sources, such as oil, get exhausted without any sustainable energy sources replacing them.

Environment protection initiatives

Governments and leaders have begun to recognize how serious the situation is and many initiatives are being taken. However, political compulsions and inadequate resources and projects are hampering sufficiently forceful action.

The initiatives include the following:

. Creating awareness among the public is a major focus area. Results have also begun to appear with public resistance against many practices that lead to environment damage, such as cutting down trees and the preference for pesticide- free food.

. Government regulations have made businesses take specific actions and avoid others to protect the environment and public health. Trees cut from forests need to be compensated by replanting, angling is restricted and pollution control is a major focus area.

. Research efforts are being intensified to tap renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind power and biomass energy. Biomass energy involves using waste materials like wood chips, straw, sewage sludge and bio waste to generate energy. Unlike bio fuels, biomass does not compete for resources that can be used for food.

. Reputed businesses are developing alternatives that use less energy. For example, Siemens claims on their website that their combined-cycle power plants use hot waste-gases (that were formerly released into the environment) to generate steam for downstream turbines, reducing fuel needed to generate power by as much as 60 per cent.

. There are several standards and reforms to keep a check on the businesses. ISO 14001, published by International Standards Organization, is a standard that seeks to focus the attention of industrial units on environmental issues. Accounting reforms seek to account for environmental costs of business operations, in addition to financial costs.

Businesses that act with environmental responsibility are even beginning to see improvements in their bottom lines.

Environmental management is more about managing the interactions of human societies with the environment rather than managing the environment. Human activities have led to considerable degradation of the environment and the situation is threatening to become dangerous to life on earth. Persistent toxic substances that do not degrade for months to years are already leading to poorer quality of life for people, while climate change is leading to many disasters.

2.4 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Generation of power needs resources. Resources available on earth are diminishing in nature. These are depleting at a fast face with time as use is increasing exponentially. There are some renewable resources, e.g., solar power, wind power and geothermal power. Technology is also being developed to harness these renewable resources to generate power. The capital investment requirement is very high as compared to normally available resources. It can be quoted here that with the available technology, we could hardly generate 5 per cent of total power generation as on date.

Let us see the other aspect of life, where one cannot understand all technical reasons or benefits of the whole world until he himself realizes some benefits for his action or efforts. In this competitive world, cost competitiveness is essential for survival of every individual. To establish any work/motive or task, energy in one or other form is an essential component.

Thus, the need to conserve energy, particularly in industry and commerce is strongly felt as the energy cost takes up substantial share in the overall cost structure of the operation. Therefore, it is called management of energy or in other words management of resources or energy conservation.

Managing energy and natural resources

Energy management does not happen by chance. It cannot be done single-handedly. It needs coordinated effort by a team of energy-conscious people with a milestone to be established. Very concerted efforts in a planned manner are required to established energy management. Strategy needs to be established based on the 'target of energy conservation' .

Energy management techniques

The following are the energy management techniques:

     (i) Self knowledge and awareness among the masses

(ii) Re-engineering and evaluation (iii) Technology up gradations

2.4.1 Conservation of Natural Resources

Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. The following are some of the ways:

Conservation of water

1. Do not keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing. 2. Fill water in washing machines only up to the level required.

3. Install water-saving toilets that use not more than six liters per flush

   4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.

   5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways, etc.

   6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum. Never water the plants in mid-day.

7. Install a system to capture rain water.

Conservation of energy

1. Turn off lights, fans and other appliances, when not in use.

2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun

        instead of using dryers.

3. Use solar cooker for cooking, which will make the food more nutritious and

        will save your LPG expenses.

4. Build your house with provision for sunspace, which will keep your house

        warmer and will provide more light.                                      .

5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible.

Share a car-pool if possible.

6. Control the use of air conditioners.

7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and paper.

8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using an automobile.

Protection of soil

    1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden.

Grow grass in the open areas that will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.

   2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.

3. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the

soil.

4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.

Promotion of sustainable agriculture

1. Do not waste food; take as much as you can eat. 2. Reduce the use of pesticides.

3. Fertilize your crops with organic fertilizers.

4. Use drip irrigation.

5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.

6. Control pests.

2.4.2 Conservation of Energy

It is well known that energy saving could be obtained to the extent of 15 per cent, without both an additional input and with proper modification addition of equipments, for generation of power, especially boilers of about 33 per cent efficiency. Using fluid bed techniques, it is possible to save energy to the extent 000 per cent. The organized sector, especially industries, transport, etc., could take lead in this direction. The other sectors, especially agriculture, could very well make use of alternate energy sources including biogas, wind energy, and photovoltaic which is considered extremely suitable for remote areas including hills because of the distribution problems that occurs with conventional energy~

.s

Any additional generation of power, especially thermal power, will lead to further environmental degradation. It is, therefore, obvious that conservation of energy will also reduce environmental, degradation. Hence, any effort on energy conservation will automatically contribute to control of environmental pollution as well as eco restoration. Energy conservation techniques are briefly described. .

Power shortage

The rise in demand of power against supply may hamper the growth of industry and agriculture. At the end of the sixth plan, a gap of 5,444 MW between demand and supply, may become as wide as 10,000 MW during seventh plan. In the first year of the seventh plan (1985-86) the addition to the utilities was 4072 MW including 2,830 MW in the thermal sector. The power position in the country worsened in 1985-86 with a 7.9 per cent shortfall in power supply. In 1984-85, the power deficit was around 6.7 per cent. The expected annual growth rate in the demand for the electricity in the seventh plan is 12.2 per cent.

There has been a substantial increase in cost per megawatt of power. This has gone up from ~ 24 lakhs in the first plan to ~ 159 lakhs at the end of the sixth plan. Transmission and distribution losses were as high as 21 per cent in 1985-86, while in Japan and in the Federal Republic of Germany, the loss was about 5.3 per cent and 4.7 per cent, respectively.

As the thermal and hydel energies are costly and are also location based, so the gap, in demand and supply can be reduced to some extent by non-conventional energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, etc.

Energy derived through other sources is being researched and worked upon, but we are not in a position to tap other sources which are not very much efficient. Efficient use of energy, therefore, has to be given more importance, wastage has to be minimized and maximum utilization of capacity is the need of the hour. It is obvious that there is no alternative to conservation of energy. Thus, any innovation contributing to the saving of energy should be welcomed and effort in this area should be

encouraged.

Energy conservation in steel and allied industries

The iron and steel industry in India, involving high temperature processes, consumes as much energy as 9-10 million cal per tonne of crude steel, which is about 58 per cent more than that in USA and is about 38 per cent more than the lowest energy consumed in the world. Energy consumption costs in an integrated steel plant account for as much as 25 per cent of total production costs. Indian steel industry alone consumes about 50 per cent energy consumed by the industrial sector.

Global scenario

To explain the reasons for high energy consumption in Indian steel industry, a shop ­wise comparison with that of a developed country may give better insight. The following observations were made from a comparison between energy usage in Indian steel plant and steel plant in Japan during 1980:

(i) Specific energy consumption in the Indian steel plant is twice that of the Japanese steel plant. (ii) In both the cases, about 72 per cent of the energy consumed is up to the iron making stage. (iii) The fuel utilization efficiency in the steel-making and reheat furnaces, is poor in the Indian steel plants. In these areas, the specific energy consumption is twice that in the Japanese steel plant.

Action areas for energy conservation

In the operation of steel industries, maximum attention should be given to the optimum utilization of energy by use of appropriate technologies. The following areas may be easily observed where conservation efforts should be focussed:

(i) The consumption of petroleum fuels contributes to about 13 per cent of the total fuel bill of the steel plants. So, reduction in consumption of petroleum products is really advissable at this stage. (ii) A high priority should be given to the energy conservation efforts in the iron making areas where about 72 per cent of the total energy is consumed. The energy conservation measures can be categorized as follows:

. Equipment improvements

. operational improvements

. Modernization

(1) Equipment improvements

This category of measures may give quite high return with marginal investment The following areas may be recognized easily:

                     (i) Insulation of cold blast main

(ii) Minimizing leakages of hot blast

(iii) Improvement in combustion systems

(iv) Insulation of furnaces by ceramic fibre may reduce the heat loss to an extent of 5.7 per cent.

(v) Modification of water cooled spide in the reheating furnaces.

(2) Operational improvements

This category does not require any capital investment that have to be followed on a continuous routine basis. Some areas of improving operational aspects are:

                     (i) To minimize leakage of oil, air, steam, etc.

(ii) To analyse fuel gases regularly

(iii) To maintain proper quality and size of input raw materials.

(3) Modernization

A huge amount of investment is required for this purpose. Leisure is an essential requirement for efficient plant and failure to modernize the plant at the right time leads to steep deterioration in the plant output.

Energy conservation in textile industry

It is estimated that the textile industry consisting of a little over 700 mills consumes an energy worth ~ 490.00 crores per year (1982 figures). This, in other word, means that energy alone forms 8-10 per cent of the total production cost of the textile produced by them. Effective conservation measures can save us as much as 10 per cent of the energy cost. In the past, the power and utility cost of the textile sector was only 3-4 per cent of the total cost structure. The hike in coal and other fuel prices has led to this cost going up to 8-10 per cent. Obviously, our efforts should be effected towards a more economical use of our fuels. The more instant energy conservation measures specifically suggested for some industries are as follows:

(i) Use of premium efficiency electric motors and correct motor and load sizing.

(ii) Regular inspection of transformers for distribution lines, prevention of leakages, prevention in abnormal rise of temperature and working transformers over 85 per cent of the rated load.

(i)    Use of static condensers to improve power factor.

(ii)   (iv) Roof level reduction to reduce lighting load.

  (v) Optimum speed of spindle to produce most economic yam.

(vi) Proper motor maintenance to prevent loose cotton and dust accumulation and bum out of motors.

  (vii) In the heat energy side, proper boiler operation and maintenance, good insulation of steam lines, feed water recycling and waste heat recovery can be economically carried out.

(viii) Solar energy in textile industry can be used for the following: (a) Steam generation

(b) Preheating of motor

(c) Air cooling and humidification

(d) Cooking and dish washing in the canteen

(e) Drying of cloth

Energy conservation in the railways

Energy accounts for 22-23 per cent of the operating expenses of the railways. Over the years, the railways have taken systematic steps towards reduction in energy consumption and this is manifest in the changeover from steam to diesel and now electric traction. The railways consume about 7.25 million tonnes of coal annually,

1550 million litres of HSD oil and about 3250 million kwh of electricity for traction alone. Any measure which promotes more efficient use of energy in the railways would greatly add to measures of reducing in operating costs in railways and to be a trendsetter in energy utilization in the rest of the economy. The study of the following aspects may contribute somewhat in the area of energy saving:

1. Better tracks: The consumption of energy is directly related with the surface on which the movement of the body takes place. A road vehicle gives less millage per unit of fuel on a rough road. The same phenomenon occurs in railway systems too, and hence, the design, construction and maintenance of the track are important factors to be taken care of, if energy has to be conserved.

2. Fuel economy in diesel engines: The primary aim of the diesel engine designers has been to achieve fuel economy. Considerable economy in fuel consumption has been achieved using assembly components of improved designs and optimizipg energy performance parameters based on these changes. However, some fuel economy can be achieved by minor modifications and adjustments of the engines.

Energy conservation in other areas

Domestic consumers can be motivated to curtail energy consumption in many household goods. These include fan regulators, lighting fluorescent chokes, pressure cookers, etc. Introduction of higher technology will help in conservation and minimize wastage. Advancement in electronics, in general, and semiconductor technology, in

particular, has opened avenues for improving energy efficiency in almost all sectors of industry. For transmission of high voltage electrical energy, the use of high power semiconductors can contribute to better cost effectiveness.

Use of electronic controls

One area for energy conservation is the use of electronic controls for a wide variety of electrical motor operated systems, where speed is required to be maintained at a significantly lower and then full rated speed over reasonably prolonged periods. If an electronic regulator is used in place of resistance type regulators in fans, about 12 watt per fan can be saved easily. Thus, 6 MW for 5.5 million fans, per year, can be saved. Power semiconductors will also be effective for light dimmers, room coolers, sodium lamps, radios, TV s and other equipment.

Considering the existing dismal power scenario, a concerted campaign needs to be mounted on conservation and efficient use of energy in industries. Industry needs motivation to discard inefficient use of power. Appropriate legislation containing a package of incentives would i..'1duce manufactures of equipment, using energy, to switch over to modem technology, including electronics.

2.5 OPTIMAL USE OF FOSSIL FUELS

Fuels formed by natural resources, for example, anaerobic decomposition of dead and buried organisms are known as fossil fuels. Organisms and the resulting fossil fuels are usually millions of years old. There are many types of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas, coal; natural gas contains high percentages of carbon.

Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.

Fossil fuels are known as non-renewable resources of energy as their formation takes millions of years, and reserves are getting depleted at a much faster rate than new ones are being made. The use and production of fossil fuels raise environmental

concerns. Therefore, it is important to optimally use these fossil fuels as their rate of

formation is very slow and are thus non-renewable. Using every part or almost every part of a natural resource in the best possible way is called optimal utilization of a natural resource. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs.

Burning fossil fuels causes major adverse effects. It produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide per year, and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase

of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the earth to rise in response, which climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.

In the USA, more than 90 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions come from the combustion of fossil fuels. Combustion of fossil fuels also produces other air pollutants, like sulphur oxides, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.

Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to earth as acid rain, impacting both the built environment and the natural areas. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.

Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal. However, this radioactivity from coal burning is minuscule at each source and has not shown to have any adverse effect on human physiology.

To optimally use a fossil fuel, all its different parts must also be utilized. For example, burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide variety of applications. Fly ash is one of the residues generated in the combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants, and is one of two types of ash that jointly are known as coal ash; the other, bottom ash, is removed from the bottom of coal furnaces. In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In the USA, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43 per cent is recycled, often used to supplement Portland cement in concrete production. The reuse of fly ash as an engineering material primarily stems from its pozzolanic nature, spherical shape, and relative uniformity. Fly ash recycling, in descending frequency, includes usage in the following:

. Embankments and structural fill

. Road subbase

. Waste stabilization and solidifIcation

. Portland cement and grout

. Flowable fill

. Aggregate

. Raw feed for cement clinkers

. Mine reclamation

. Stabilization of soft soils

. Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete

. Other applications include cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles,

paints, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic products

In a similar way, the left over petroleum products are also used; for example, tar, a left over of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads. In a similar way, all the parts of petroleum are used in some way or the other as it is a non­renewable source of energy.

In economic terms, pollution from fossil fuels is regarded as a negative externality. Taxation is considered one way to make societal costs explicit, in order to internalize the cost of pollution. This aims to make fossil fuels more expensive, thereby reducing their use and the amount of pollution associated with them, along with raising the funds necessary to counteract these factors.

2.6 USES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Non-conventional energy means energy acquired ftom sources other than the traditional sources of energy. Non-conventional energy is also called renewable energy, because these energy sources can be replenished as compared to the traditional sources of energy. The latter are based on fossil fuel and would get exhausted in the future. The most popular form of non-conventional energy is the solar energy. Some of the other sources are wave, wind energy via wind turbines, hydroelectricity or solar energy gathered by plants, such as alcohol fuels, etc. Further, the gravitational force of the moon can be used through tidal power stations, and the heat trapped in the centre of the earth is used through geothermal energy systems. Other examples of non­ conventional source of energy are bio fuel and fuel cells.                                                .

However, some of these non-conventional or renewable sources of energy are unreliable and therefore cannot be relied upon to give a constant supply of energy. Despite the inherent troubles with the technology of renewable energy, mounting environmental demand has forced its development at a faster pace. The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) expects 160 GW of the capacity to be installed by 2010, which will be a growth rate of more than 20 per cent per year.

2.6.1 Solar Energy

Solar radiation has become an attractive energy source because of its many features: its global distribution, its high thermodynamic quality, its inexhaustible energy supply, and its pollution ftee nature. On the other hand, some characteristics have made its use limited on a large scale. The daily and seasonal variations in available solar energy may require the use of energy storage facilities. The dispersed nature of the resource itself affects the economics of power generation. The average amount of solar energy, striking an area, including direct and diffuse radiation, can vary from 2 kwh per square metre to as much as 7-8 kwhlm2 in sunny regions. The average energy available (in kwh/m2 year) to a tracking surface is 0.5 to 0.7 times the number of sunshine hours. As a worldwide average, 1.500 kwhlm2 year is available on a tracking surface and 1,150 kwh/m2/year on a horizontal surface. Solar radiation is currently being used to generate electricity via two technologies-solar thermal and photovoltaics.

Solar thermal electric conversion

There are a number of possible systems for solar thermal electric conversion: parabolic trough, parabolic dish, satellite, total systems (heat and electricity), control receiver and solar ponds. Based upon researches to date, the most viable method for large­ scale conversion is the central receiver. In this method, sunlight, falling on flat two axes tracking mirrors, is focused on a central boiler. The absorbed energy produces

superheated steam or hot gases to drive a Rankine-Steam cycle. Projected sizes of solar thermal energy conversion systems range to 150 MW.

Technical limitations

Solar thermal energy conversion is a concentrating system. It must rely solely on the direct insolation component, the highly collimated solar radiation. This stands in contrast to photovoltaic and other flat plate collectors that can use both diffuse and direct insolation. Thus, solar thermal energy conversion can be considered to be very much successful in an arid region where there is less diffusion by clouds, dust, pollution, etc.

Land requirements, although significant, are not a limiting factor, particularly in the light of land availability in hot arid areas where solar thermal energy conversion is most likely. A thumb rule is that a square mile will supply 100 MW at a 40 per cent load factor.

Solar energy in the form of heat

Energy in the form of heat is one of the main energy requirements in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors. In the domestic sector, thermal energy is needed for cooking, heating water and drying purposes. The agricultural sector needs thermal energy for growing of plants under controlled environment, using green houses. Drying of agricultural products is required for their preservation.

In the industrial sector, there is a need for hot water, heated air, gases and liquids and low temperature steam. The commercial sector, viz. hotels, hospitals, offices needs thermal energy for variety of applications. Generally, these requirements are being met by burning of coal, oil, wood, animal dung and use of electricity. Many of these conventional energy sources can be replaced by solar energy. Due to its geographical position, India is blessed with plenty of sunshine, with an annual average insolation, varying from 4 to 7 kwh per m2 per day with 250-300 clear sunny days, per year. The entire temperature range required by the applications can be covered with the available technologies of conversion of solar energy to thermal energy. The available technologies can be categorized as given in the Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Conversion of Solar Energy

Temperature Range	Applications
II 1. Low thermal energy (below 100°C) refrigeration, space heating, desalination, etc. 2. Medium grade thermal energy         (100 to 300°C) 3. High grade thermal energy         (above 300°C)	Water heating, air heating and drying, Cooking, steam generation, drying, power generation, etc. Power generation.

2.6.2 Wind Energy

Due to the comparatively long-term experience in the use of wind plants, future contributions and cost of this source are more certain than those of other renewable sources.

In projecting the significance of wind energy, as an energy source, account must be taken of the highly localized quality of the wind resource. Although the resource is large, site selection is a critical and limiting factor in forecasting potential.

The annual-average hourly-mean wind-speed is, generally, used to reveal the wind energy potential for a particular location. In India, at most places, this falls in the range 9-17 km/h. The rated wind speed at which full rated power is generated is normally higher than the annual average-speed. Therefore, in order to maximize energy availability during a year, a rated speed in the range of20-25 km/h would correspond to 9-17 km/h annual average-speed.

The number of hours during any year, when wind speed would equal or exceed this rated wind speed at a given place, would probably be between 1000-2000 hours, though not equitably distributed throughout the year. During the period March to August, the winds are unifonnly strong over the whole of Indian peninsula except the eastern peninsular coast. The months of May, June and July account for nearly half of the annual energy availability. Wind speed during, November to March, are weaker. Therefore, unless the wind energy availability and the demand are matched, a wind mill designed to operate in windy months would deliver only fraction of the output in the less windy months or if it is designed to operate in a less windy months, it would utilize only a fraction of energy available during the windy season.

It has been estimated that in windy areas (18-20 km/h), the potential for wind power generation is about 5 MW /sq km and, in less windy areas (15-18 km/h), about 2 MW/sq km. Such wind conditions, according to the present infonnation, are available in, atleast, 5 per cent of the land area of the country. On the basis of available wind information, it is estimated that there exists a potential of the order of20,000 MW in the country for wind generated electricity.

However, wind and solar energy cannot be a replacement for the presently available commercial sources of energy, in tenns of the total power delivered. They can play an important role as a decentralized resource, in regions where commercial power is not available and where good wind and sunshine prevail, particularly in the development of integrated energy systems in many rural areas in India.

2.6.3 Hydel Energy

Hydropower is one of the most attractive sources of renewable energy. In the realization of harnessing hydro energy both, major and mini/micro hydro sources, are to be developed. It has been realized uniformly that large hydro projects involve several environments and social consequences. Hence, there is increasing interest in small hydro projects. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has classified the small hydro plants into three classes. They are as follows:

(i) Small hydro plants: The plants with individual unit ranging between 1 MW and 5 MW, and the total installed capacity is less than 15 MW.

(ii) Mini hydro plants: The total installed capacity is less than 2 MW with individual unit capacity ranging between 100 KW -1 MW.

(iii) Micro hydro plants: Those plants which are of less than 100 KW installed capacity with individual capacity ranging between a few KW -100 K W.

In Indian conditions, small hydro plants can be broadly categorized into two types as follows:

(a) Small hydroelectric project sites in the hilly regions where small streams are available.

(b) Small hydro plants especially in the plains where the canal falls, utilizing regulated discharges for irrigation and water supply to towns.

The total number of small hydroelectric schemes in operation at the end of 1988 was 89 with an installed capacity of more than 171 MW. The on-going small hydro schemes numbered 87 with an aggregate installed capacity of 198 MW. About 255 small hydro projects were under investigation in various parts of the country.

The north and north eastern areas of India are hilly and mountainous. These areas are sparsely populated and accessible with difficulty. Extension of grid lines from plains is very difficult and expensive. Setting up of diesel-based stations is also difficult and uneconomical because of high cost of transportation. However, these areas are blessed with a number of hilly streams which can be utilized for generation of electricity through microhydel projects. The energy can be distributed to the surrounding villages through isolated grids.

2.6.4 Tidal Energy

Energy is very closely linked to man's economic growth and development. The energy I

need of the world is increasing at a high rate. The main source of energy used is non. renewable energy resources, such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc. Energy utilization, specially the fossil fuels has great environmental consequences. The environmental

impact of energy production and utilization is closely related to the release of green, house gases, such as CO2, N 2 0 and air pollutants, such as N x 0 y' SOx, hydrocarbons,. etc.

Energy and environment, therefore, pass major scientific and technological . challenges and has lead to the search of alternative eco- friendly energy sources. One I I of the alternatives could be tidal energy. A lot of energy is inherent in the twice-a-dayl

rise and fall of the tides and is related to the local geographical conditions. The carboni dioxide is 'taken up' by the annual production of crops, such as soybeans and then! released when vegetable oil-based biodiesel is combusted. This makes biodiesel thel best technology currently available for heavy-duty diesel applications to reduce I

    atmospheric carbon. The advantages ofbiodiesel are as follows:           '.

. Biodiesel is safer for people to breathe. A research conducted in the US: shows that biodiesel emissions have decreased the levels of all targetl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitrated PAH (nPAH)1 compounds, as compared to the petroleum diesel exhaust. PAR and nPAHI compounds have been identified as the potential cancer causing compounds. I All these reductions are due to the fact the biodiesel fuel contains no aromatic! compounds.

. Biodiesel helps preserve and protect the natural resources. For every' 1 unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel, 3.24 units of energy are gained. This is the highest energy balance of any fuel. Due to this high energy. I balance and since it is domestically produced, the use of biodiesel can greatly! contribute to domestic energy security.

. Biodiesel is non-toxic and biodegradable. Tests sponsored by the US Department of Agriculture confirm that biodiesel is ten times less toxic than table salt and biodegrades as fast as dextrose (a test sugar).

The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as feedstocks, adaptation of continuous transesterification process and the recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel! by-product (glycerol) are the crucial options to be taken into account to lower the price of biodiesel.

There are four primary ways to make biodiesel. These are: (i) direct use anal blending; (ii) micro emulsions; (iii) thermal cracking (pyrolysis); and (iv) transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and arrimal fats. Transesterification is the process of reacting a triglyceride molecule with an excess of alcohol in the presence of a catalyst (KOH, NaOH, NaOCN3, etc.) to produce glycerine and fatty esters.

Biodiesel can also be made from other feedstocks, such as other vegetable oils, com oil, canola (an edible variety of rapeseed) oil, cottonseed oil, mustard oil, palm oil, etc. Restaurant waste oils, such as frying oils; animal fats, such as beef tallow or pork lard; float grease (from wastewater treatment plants); trap grease (from restaurant grease traps) are some of the other sources of biodiesel.

Biofuel development in India centres mainly on the cultivation and processing ofJatropha plant seeds that are very rich in oil (40 per cent). Jatropha oil has been used in India for several decades as biodiesel to cater to the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest communities. However, biodiesel in India is virtually a non-starter. A number of reasons are responsible for this.

The first reason is the non-availability of vegetable oil. India is still unable to satisfy its huge demand for vegetable oil or cooking oil and has to import 55 per cent of the volume needed. India is the largest importer of edible oil in the world. Edible oil imports amount to more than 50 per cent of the total agricultural imports of India. Most of the different types of edible oils used currently are stable (do not get rancid). These do not decompose much on storage. Hence, these are preferred for the transesterification process. On the other hand, the various types of non-edible oils are

not that stable, and need a lot of pre-treatment adding to the cost of manufacture of biodiesel. If these are used as lamp oil, even oil with 50 per cent free fatty acids can be used. Collection of non-edible oil seeds is a manual operation and requires a large manpower, which is challenging, and for a large biodiese1 plant it is a logistical nightmare. The price of seeds of Jatropha is currently very high because most of it is used for plantation purposes. At this price, the manufacturing cost of biodiesel is three times the pump price of petroleum diesel.

The second reason is the government's policies. The government of India started Biofuel Mission in 2003, but it announced its Biofuel Policy on 11 September 2008. The union cabinet in its meeting gave its approval for the National Policy on Biofue1 prepared by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, and also approved for setting up of an empowered National Biofuel Coordination Committee, headed by the Prime Minister of India and a Biofuel Steering Committee headed by the Cabinet Secretary.

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has been given the responsibility for the National Policy on Biofuels and overall coordination by the Prime Minister under the,

Allocation of Business Rules. A proposal on 'National Policy on Biofuels and it~ Implementation' was prepared after wide scale consultations and inter-ministerial deliberations. The draft policy was considered by a group of ministers (GoMs) under the chairmanship of Shri Sharad Pawar, Union Minister of Agriculture, Food and Public Distribution. After considering the suggestions of the Planning Commission and other members, the GoMs recommended the National Biofuel Policy to the cabinet

The salient features of the National Biofuel Policy are as follows:

. An indicative target of 20 per cent by 2017 for the blending of biofuels­ bioethanol and biodiesel has been proposed.

. Biodiesel production will be taken up from non-edible oil seeds in wastd' degraded/marginal lands.

. The focus would be on indigenous production of biodiesel feedstock and import of free fatty acid (FF A) based, such as oil, palm, etc., would not be permitted. .

. Biodiesel plantations on community/government/forest wastelands would be encouraged while plantation in fertile irrigated lands would not be encouraged.

. Minimum support price (MSP) with the provision of periodic revision for biodiesel oil seeds would be announced to provide fair price to the growers, The details about the MSP mechanism, enshrined in the National Biofuel Policy, would be worked out carefully, subsequently, and considered by the Biofuel Steering Committee.

. Minimum purchase price (MPP) for the purchase of bio-ethanol by Oil marketing companies (OMCs) would be based on the actual cost oil production and import price of bio-ethanol. In case of biodiesel, the MPP should be linked to the prevailing retail diesel price.

. The National Biofuel Policy envisages that bio-fuels, namely biodiesel and bio-ethanol, may be brought under the ambit of 'declared goods' by the, Government to ensure unrestricted movement of biofuels within and outside the states.

. It is also stated in the Policy that no taxes and duties should be levied on biodiesel.

. The National Biofuel Coordination Committee to be chaired by the hon'ble prime minister.

Apart for these policies, the government holds large tracts of land as forest lands and revenue lands. In some states, such as Chattisgarh, these are leased to state-owned oil company, e.g., Indian Oil Corporation (IOC). These create problem~ for Jatropha plantation as large patches of land are required for such plantation.

At the same time, biodiesel production has the potential to address some of the most important development challenges in India. First, the production of biodiesel

holds large potentials for the development of the agricultural sector and rural areas of India. It can create additional income and employment and-depending on the organization of production-strengthen participation patterns and empowerment of the rural population. Second, oil-bearing trees may help to restore degraded land and to increase Indian forest cover. Third, it can diminish India's dependency on oil imports and reduce CO2 emissions substantially .